Socratic theoretical philosophy  

ABSTRACT

Socrates uses the Socratic method as a tool to catalyze self-examination of others so that may seek out knowledge. In this article I will present the theoretical vision of Socrates' life and his method of teaching.  Later, I explained the biographies of Socrates and his life, as well as the method he used in his teaching.  In addition, I gave an example of an argument against the method put forward by Socrates.  With this article the reader can get a concept of this teaching approach and use Socrates as an example of how a high school teacher leads his students to the goal.

Keywords: Socratic Method, self-examination, biographies,

1. Introduction

The Socratic Method refers to a particular way of approaching conversations. Essentially, it involves one person presenting a hypothesis about something. Then another person asks them questions that push the first individual to defend their position. The idea is that discussing theories in this way encourages critical thought. It forces a person to think about whether their view is actually right. It also helps them to develop better hypotheses along the way. In fact many experts in the law of attraction plan their exercises on the basis of the Socratic Method.

The Socratic Method is one of the oldest educational methods used in the classroom.  Developed by Socrates 2400 years ago, this strategy uses thought-provoking question and answer sessions to promote learning.  In modern times, the Socratic Method was adapted for use in universities and became the dominant form of instruction for students learning philosophy and the law.

2. socratic method

Socratic method is defined as “a pedagogical technique in which a teacher does not give information directly, but instead asks a series of questions with the result that the student comes either to a desired knowledge by answering the questions or to a deeper awareness of the limits of knowledge”.

The Socratic Method is a method of eliminating assumptions, and better assumptions can be made by systematically identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.

There are a number of reasons why you should use it: It’s a highly effective way to clarify and unpack one’s beliefs, and to examine the assumptions, evidence, reasons etc. used to support them. It makes us active in our thinking rather than passive. Improves our critical thinking skills and improves our questioning abilities. Determines the extent of our knowledge on a given subject, and reveals what we know and what we don’t. Encourages intellectual humility by making us aware of the limits of our knowledge. Exposes the assumptions, contradictions, inconsistencies, fallacies etc. in our thinking and makes us aware of the implications and consequences of our beliefs. Aa well as llows the questioner and answerer to work together cooperatively in a non-confrontal way.  

2.1 Development of Socratic Method

In the second half of the 5th century BC, sophists were teachers who specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric to entertain, impress, or persuade an audience to accept the speaker's point of view. Socrates promoted an alternative method of teaching, which came to be called the Socratic Method.

Socrates began to engage in such discussions with his fellow Athenians after his friend from youth, Chaerephon, visited the Oracle of Delphi, which asserted that no man in Greece was wiser than Socrates. Socrates saw this as a paradox, and began using the Socratic Method to answer his conundrum. Diogenes Laërtius, however, wrote that Protagoras invented the “Socratic” method.

 

2.2 Arguing Against the Socratic Method

In a study published in the December 2011 issue of the journal Mind, Brain, and Education, four cognitive scientists from Argentina describe what happened when they asked contemporary high school and college students a series of questions identical to those posed by Socrates. In one of his most famous lessons, Socrates showed a young slave boy a square, then led him through a series of 50 questions intended to teach the boy how to draw a second square with an area twice as large as the first. Students in the 2011 experiment, led by researcher Andrea Goldin, gave answers astonishingly similar to those offered by Socrates’ pupil, even making the same mistakes he made. “Our results show that the Socratic dialogue is built on a strong intuition of human knowledge and reasoning which persists more than twenty-four centuries after its conception,” the researchers write. Their findings, Goldin and his co-authors add, demonstrate the existence of “human cognitive universals traversing time and cultures.”

4. CONCLUSION

The Socratic system is a valuable technology that every critic should know and use.  Exploring one's beliefs to find it. If we follow the Socrates method, we will quickly improve our critical thinking and questioning skills, discover the limits of our knowledge of a given subject, and become a profound and intelligent thinker, perhaps coming to the same conclusion as Socrates did:

   "The only thing I know is that I know nothing."  - Socrates

REFERENCES

 

[1]    Socratic method - Wikipedia

[2]    The Socratic Method – Life Lessons

 

 

Scientific inquiry

ABSTRACT

Inquiry means to seek information, knowledge or truth. Scientific research refers to the way scientists study the natural world and suggest explanations based on evidence from their works. It is a concern of the educator interested in the process as well as the products of science. It involves theory construction, rigorous observation, and experimentation. This article focuses on how to conduct a scientific inquiry using invention and test, hypothesis testing, confirmation and acceptability.

Keywords: Inquiry, invention, hypothesis, confirmation, acceptability  

1. Introduction

As pointed out in the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996), students who use inquiries to learn science engage in many activities and thought processes, much like scientists who seek to expand human knowledge of the natural world.  However, the activities and thought processes used by scientists are not always familiar to the educator who seeks to introduce an inquiry into the classroom. A good way to start this inquiry is to compare a scientist's method and thought process with the activities of a research-based science lesson. 

Scientific research has two main functions.  First, it provides a description of how scientific experiments are conducted in practice.  Second, it provides an explanation of why scientific research is successful in gaining real knowledge at the end of its process.  There is a scientific inquiry that goes beyond the development of process skills such as observing, guessing, classifying, predicting, measuring, interrogating, interpreting and analyzing data, which should lead to a proper scientific examination.

2. invention and test

A series of empirical "facts" can be analyzed and highlighted in a variety of ways, many of which will not shed light on each posture in a gift test.  Semmelweis can classify women on the maternity ward according to criteria such as age, place of residence, marital status, eating habits, and so on. But information about these will not give a patient any clue about their chances of contracting childbed fever.  Semmelweis expected criteria that were significantly related to those expectations; to this end, he finally discovered, illuminated the isolation of women who were involved by medical officers with corrupt hands.  This is because the high infant mortality rate was associated with this symptom or the corresponding class of patients.  Thus, if a particular method of analyzing and classifying empirical findings leads to an explanation of relevant phenomena, it must be based on assumptions about how those phenomena relate; without such assumptions, analysis and classification are blind.

2.1 Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a logical thinking that analyzes the tendencies or relationships of data to arrive at a general conclusion.  A scientist observes and notes them.  This data can be qualitative or quantitative and can be supplemented with raw data drawings, pictures, photos or videos.  Inductive reasoning involves generalization through careful observation and analysis of a large number of individual data points.  The generalizations derived from the persuasive arguments are not always correct.

 

2.2 Deductive Reasoning

Deduction reasoning is another form of logical thinking that begins with a general policy or law and applies to a specific situation in order to predict specific outcomes.  A general set of principles enables a scientist to cite and predict definite results that will always be correct until the general principles they begin with are correct.

3. HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Biologists study the living world by asking questions and finding science-based answers.  The scientific method has been used even in ancient times.

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that can be tested.  Several hypotheses can be suggested to solve a problem.  For example, one assumption might be, "The classroom is hot because no one has activated the air conditioning."  But there may be other responses to the question and therefore other hypotheses may be suggested. The second assumption may be, "If a power outage causes the classroom to overheat, then the air conditioner will not work." Once an assumption is selected, a prediction can be made.  For example, the first assumption might be, "If the student activates the air conditioning, the classroom will no longer be warm." Using the scientific method (figure 01), the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected.

4. CONFIRMATION AND ACCEPTABILITY

An assumption should be tested to confirm validity. In the absence of unfavorable evidence, the confirmation of a hypothesis will normally be regarded as increasing with the number of favorable test findings. There are already thousands of confirmation cases.  The addition of another advantageous find confirms the boost but little. The advantage of a hypothesis depends not only on the amount of evidence available, but also on its diversity: the greater the diversity, the stronger the effect.

  

4. CONCLUSION

Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world.

 

 

REFERENCES

[1]    Scientific Inquiry Definition and Meaning | Top Hat

[2]    Scientific Inquiry | Biology for Non-Majors I (lumenlearning.com)

[3]    Full article: Views About Scientific Inquiry: A Study of Students’ Understanding of Scientific Inquiry in Grade 7 and 12 in Sweden (tandfonline.com)

 

                      scientific explanation

ABSTRACT

                                                                                                                                     

We have good, scientific explanations for most of what we see in the natural world. A scientific explanation uses observations and measurements to explain what we see in the natural world.  Science is the study of alternatives Explanations. Is an explanation the answer to the question of why it happens? Therefore a scientific explanation should make a claim about the problem, provide evidence for the claim and provide reasoning that links the evidence to the claim. In this article, I hope to present scientific explanations logically through evidence.  Scientific explanations should be as consistent with the evidence as possible.

 

Keywords: science, explanation, claim, reasoning, evidence

1.       Introduction

 

Scientific explanations for the problems have been around since pre-Socratic times. However, modern discussion actually begins with the developmental reduction-nominal model. That was the premise of a recent discussion science sometimes provides explanations. The task of a "theoretician" or "model" of scientific explanation is to characterize the structure of such explanations.  Philosophical literature assumes that there is a significant continuity between the explanations found in science and some explanations found in general, non-scientific contexts. Therefore theories cannot be proven, but one can definitely disprove them.

Mainly a good scientific explanation should explain all the observations and data we have and it should allow us to make predictions that can be tested using future experiments. An example is 'Why is the sky blue?'  It’s all about light scattering.  The scientific explanation for this is that we receive white light from the sun, which fills the Earth's atmosphere.  So the sky is blue.  Most of the light that travels above continues to travel and never reaches our eyes.  But some of it is scattered by air molecules and jumps into our eyes.  The sky looks blue to us because blue light diffuses better than any other color.

 

2.       TYPES OF explanation

An explanation is a set of statements usually made to describe a set of facts that explain the causes, context, and consequences of those facts.  This description may establish rules or regulations, and may explain existing laws regarding any objector phenomenon being examined.  Also, the explanation may or may not be scientific. Non-scientific explanations suggest supernatural phenomena and non-scientific explanations based on belief. A scientific explanation is a way of explaining something we see in the natural world that’s based on observations and measurements.

2.1   Explanation vs. Confirmation

Scientific explanations should match the evidence and be logical, or they should at least match as much of the evidence as possible. The term confirmation is used in epistemology and the philosophy of science whenever observational data and other information that is taken for granted speak in favor of or support scientific theories and everyday hypotheses.

Confirmation is the giving of reasons to believe that certain statements (scientific theories) are true. The first step in explaining the concept of scientific explanation is to make a sharp distinction between explaining why a phenomenon occurs and giving reasons for believing that it does occur.

2.2 Parts of the scientific explanation

A claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) is a scientific explanation. It is a way that we explain our evidence-based claims.  This process shows in figure1.  

o   Claim: answers the question

o   Evidence: has at least 2 pieces of evidence that supports the claim

o   Reasoning: explains how the evidence supports the claim

 3. CONCLUSION

A scientific explanation is the final claim of the scientist made upon analyzing the experiment data (evidence). Scientific explanations should match the evidence and be logical or they should at least match as much of the evidence as possible.

REFERENCES

[1]    https://study.com/academy/lesson/scientific-explanation-definition-examples.html

[2]    How to Write a Scientific Explanation - YouTube

[3]    Scientific Explanation | Encyclopedia.com

 

GENDER EQUALITY

            Gender equality

 

ABSTRACT

Through gender equality, women and men should have equal rights and entitlements for human, social, economic, and cultural development and have an equal voice in civil and political life. For women, some of the most harmful gender inequalities are active in the use of human salvage. Gender inequalities in gender decision-making and gender inequalities in the implementation of human resource practices arise in broader cryptocurrency structures. This article attempts to address a report on gender equality.  

Keywords: Equality, inequality, salvage, cryptocurrency

 

1. Introduction

According to the World Health Organization, gender is a feature of socially constructed women, men, girls, and boys. This includes norms, behaviors and roles related to being a woman, a man, a girl or a boy, as well as relationships with each other.  Gender as a social structure varies from society to society and may change over time.

Through gender equality, women and men should have equal rights and entitlements for human, social, economic and cultural development and have an equal voice in civil and political life.  This does not mean that women and men will be equal, but that the rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men really depend on whether they were born a boy or not.

Using the concept of gender, feminists analyze the power relations between men and women, how that power is activated, and how that interaction has become a habit, historically and socially, over time.

Why is everything patriarchal in the world today?  Both males and females are born as babies in the womb.  And women can do everything men can do.  So they both deal with their confidence as they choose to embark on their play activities.

 

2. gender stereotypes

The theory of role points out that the origins of gender begin with the various social roles that women and men play in society.  Thus, in societies with traditional gender roles, gender stereotypes should increase relative to more balanced societies.  In line with this logic, research shows that gender stereotypes are activated based on social roles.  For example, two pseudo-groups described as "city workers" or "child raisers" operate different stereotypes.

2.1 Gender justice and capabilities

Different people have different opinions about this. The inequality between men and women describes gender equality that compares to the dimensions of a person's abilities. Capabilities such as staying healthy, being cared for, not being mentally ill, valuable social connections and integrating a more complex and specific activity job with family life are beneficial.

 It allows for the unjustified justification of gender in societies and cultures, even if they are genuinely gendered, even if they are expressed as gender differences by anti-feminists. Gender and gender and habits and institutions influence the transformation of resources into capabilities.  However, due to ideas of appropriate masculinity and femininity, a boy may be discriminated against if he wants to have a baby compared to a girl.

2.2 Sexual and reproductive health and rights: the key to gender equality

Today, two - thirds of the 1.4 billion people living in poverty are women, and it is estimated that 60% of the world's 572 million working poor. The world is changing rapidly and this change has opened the door for women to fully participate in social, economic and political life.  Despite this optimism, the norms of gender equality still lag behind women and girls.

Sexual and reproductive health and rights are fundamental human rights.  Having access to those rights will make a huge difference in the lives of women and girls around the world.  Only when women and girls have those rights will we have gender equality and only then will we be able to solve the most burning issues in the world.  It can make a difference in the lives of individuals as well as in the lives of families and communities.  They live. 

 4. CONCLUSION

Gender equality is based on western concepts and models. However, gender equity is not a question up for debate. It is something that should be adopted as a way of life. In many countries, women are still not allowed to own property and their signature are invalid a legal documents if unaccompanied by the signature of a man.

 

 

REFERENCES

 

[1]    (PDF) Gender inequalities in the workplace: The effects of organizational structures, processes, practices, and decision makers’ sexism (researchgate.net)

[2]    (DOC) abstract Gender equality calls for | Olominu Olutomilade - Academia.edu

[3]    Gender equality - Wikipedia

 TOWARD A SOCIOLOGY OF RACE AND ETHNICITY

ABSTRACT

Throughout this article, the ideal that I visualize for the changing boundaries of the study of ethnicity and race have been the subject of much debate in recent years. New theoretical debates have come to the fore and empirical research has broached new questions. Taking its cue from the wide range of themes covered in this special issue, this article seeks to map out some of the key areas in which this transformation has become apparent and to highlight the implication for ethnic and race relations as a field of study. In doing so it engages with some of the key questions that run through the whole of these special issue, including the relations between race, power and politics, identify the difference and the politics of multiculturalism. It concludes by touching on some issues that need further research and analysis.

 

 Keywords:  Ethnicity, Race, Social, Language, Religion, Culture

 

1. Introduction

Race refers to the concept of dividing people into groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics and the process of ascribing social meaning to those groups. Ethnicity describes the culture of people in a given geographic region, including their language, heritage, religion and customs. In comparison on other areas of sociological inquiry (E.g.: religion, family, culture,

work, gender, etc.), the sociology of race and ethnicity is a relatively understand field- that has grown over the past century. Early scholars concerned with the fact that race and ethnicity must

be examined in order to more fully understand capitalism, class, or even the emergence of modernity in world.

 

2. RACE vs. ETHNICITY

 

On my view and I’m of those who believe that there is one race, the “Human race”. When doing research about cultural diversity I found that talking about the difference between Race and Ethnicity. I personally didn’t that there was a difference but that’s the way it is so because I want to learn with you and I want to share with you what I know. I don’t believe that it’s racist to say that there are different races. It doesn’t mean that one is better than another. I guess it depends on how you see life, your philosophy of life. Race and ethnicity play an important role in our

lives, and it impacts how we see the world. The traditional definition of race and ethnicity is related

to physical and sociological factors respectively. As

for ethnicity; it refers to cultural factors such as nationality, regional culture, ancestry and language.

Obviously race and ethnicity can overlap, but they are distinct. In order to go further and get a better understanding of difference between race and culture (as component of ethnicity). I think it’s becoming more and more difficult to make the distinction between Race and Ethnicity because of

the mix of people and the migration of people all over the world. Let’s take an example: A women who was born and raised in the US but her parents

emigrated from China so this woman grew up within a Chinese cultural environment but she went to school in the US, she grew up in the US and she actually got both the Chinese and American cultures. So for her, as for many people- including me- when you come from different places, when you grew up within different cultures, it’s sometimes difficult to identify yourself with a race or an ethnicity.

 

 2.1 The basis of "races"

 

To determine an individual's race, people may use

one or more ancestry or biological bases, phenotypic or physical characteristics, and cultural bases, such as ideology and language. It's true that we do routinely identify each other's race as "black," "white" or "Asian," based on visual cues. But crucially, those are values that humans have chosen to ascribe to each other or themselves. The problem occurs when we conflate this social habit with scientific truth. The reason is that racial discrimination historically has been and continues today to be a phenomenon of social attitudes and behaviors, stemming from people’s perceptions.

 

2.2 Where ethnicity comes in

While race is ascribed to individuals on the basis of physical traits, ethnicity is more frequently chosen by the individual. And, because it encompasses everything from language, to nationality, culture and religion, it can enable people to take on several identities. Someone might choose to identify themselves as Asian American, British Somali or an Ashkenazi Jew, for instance, drawing on different aspects of their ascribed racial identity, culture, ancestry and religion. Ethnicity has been used to oppress different groups, as occurred during the Holocaust, or within interethnic conflict of the Rwandan genocide, where ethnicity was used to justify mass killings. Yet, ethnicity can also be a boon for people who feel like they're soloed into one racial group or another, because it offers a degree of agency, If ekwunigwe said. "That's where this ethnicity question becomes really interesting, because it does provide people with access to multiplicity," she said.

3. Culture

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of particular people, encompassing language, religion,

cuisine, social habits, music and arts, thus it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. Culture manifests the uniqueness of particular race which a

group of people belongs to. Culture is a way of life

of a group of people the behaviors, beliefs values and symbols that they accept. Culture has 5 basic characteristics. It is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated and dynamic. All culture shares

these basic features.

 

4. RACE AND ETHNICITY SOCIOLOGY

How do you define race? If you had to describe why you think you’re a member of one race and someone else was a member of a different one, you’d probably focus on appearances- your skin,your hair, maybe even the structures of your bodies and faces. But most of the time, those physical criteria mean different things; depending on the culture you’re a part of. An obvious example is skin colour. We use the words white and black to describe two races, but the distinction in skin color between those races isn’t as clear cut. A white person who’s spent the summer at the beach might come home with brown skin, but getting a tan doesn’t change their race. Clearly, race is about more than just the literal colour of someone’s skin.

 

3.1 CONCLUSION

On this article this concludes and something that should be cleared from everything we looked about today is that races aren’t fixed immutable categories-they are defined by societies. This article discussed how definitions of races and ethnicities have changed over time and across places. And we finished up by discussing how races are defined in

the world.

 

3.2 REFERENCE

[1] Reading material W6-R-1

[2] Reading material W6-R-2

[3] Reading material W6-R-3

[4]  [3] Barger,S., Donoho, C (2009). The relative

contributions of Race/ Ethnicity, relationship and

Quality of Life Research, 18(2), page no: 179-189.

 

HEdonism

ABSTRACT

This chapter deals with Happiness and Intrinsic Value, Time Attractions of Hedonism, Is Happiness All that Matters, Getting What You Want, Problems for the Desire theory and about ethics. The word hedonism comes from. The Greek word hodona means "happiness."  According to Hedonists, life is good as long as it is full of happiness and without pain. A good life is a happy life. According to the Hedonist, happiness is an attitudinal pleasure. A positive attitude towards fun.  It can range from soft content to intense.  Any physical pleasure to be acceptable, hedonism must be understood.

Keywords: Hedonism, hodona, hedonist

1. Introduction

The word hedonism comes from the Greek word hodona means "happiness."  According to Hedonists, life is good as long as it is full of happiness and without pain. A good life is a happy life. According to the Hedonist, happiness is an attitudinal pleasure. A positive attitude towards fun.  It can range from soft content to intense.  Any physical pleasure to be acceptable, hedonism must be understood. It considers happiness to be the key to a better life than physical well-being.  There are many ways to live a good life.  Many models of a good life and hedonism explains why there are so many different ways to live a good life. Happiness, however, is essential to life.  A life without happiness there can be no better life.  When you are happy, life is good too.  When you are happiest, your life is better than you.  A good life contains a lot of things that are inherently valuable.  So go for "what is inherently valuable". We really need to know. The natural way to start thinking about this is to clearly consider some of the good lives. It's to think about why every life is so good.

Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles.

2. HEDONISM

Hedonism considers happiness to be the key to a better life than physical well-being.  There are many ways to live a good life.  Many models of a good life and hedonism explains why there are so many different ways to live a good life. Happiness, however, is essential to life.  A life without happiness, there can be no better life.  When you are happy, life is good too.  When you are happiest your life is better than you.  A good life contains a lot of things that are inherently valuable.  So go for "what is inherently valuable". We really need to know. The natural way to start thinking about this is to clearly consider some of the good lives. It's to think about why every life is so good. Hedonism can be traced back to the ancient Greeks in the West. Rus, a great hedonist, argued that fun is as the only thing worth pursuing. Epicurus argued that is the most pleasing that of internal peace.  The perfect state of calm often comes from two sources: neutrality in all physical matters and intellectual clarity of what is really important. Vision is the path to such clarity.  The scene can reveal untruths our beliefs. He goes on to say that we can easily get angry and that sex and money are the mainstays of a good life.  If Hedonism is true, happiness directly improves one's well-being, grief directly overwhelms it.  Everyone believes it.  Studying hard, playing by the rules, eating, or telling the truth. Our value in such things protects us.  So they need to be protected.  On the positive side, affirming it can improve our lives.  Happiness raises our standard of living.  Similarly physical pain usually reduces our well-being because we do not enjoy it.  But in extraordinary cases, when a person really likes it, physical pain can occur. Improves the well-being of that person. Hedonism explains why it is so difficult to present universally.

 

2.1 Is Happiness All That Matter

People who try to be happier than ever successful. Philosophers refer to this as the paradox of Hedonism. The paradox is not surprising. A serious threat to Hedonism. It does not challenge the idea of ​​being happy. Happiness is what we need for our loved ones. Happiness contributes to a truly good life. But hedonism is not without problems. Good answers to the paradox of hedonism, worrying about evil pleasures, and Ross has protests in both worlds. But when we do things, things are tactical. Considers the value of happiness based on false beliefs. Further, Hedonists cannot allow the innate value of self-control. Consider the value of happiness based on false beliefs. Hedonists cannot allow the innate value of self-government.

 

2.2 Getting What You Want

Nothing can make life better. It requires personal wealth, health, and a loving family. Benefits only if we want or can provide them. If we did not take care of them, then they cannot make us better. I like this theory a lot. It all depends on whether our lives have improved. Whether our desires have been fulfilled. It shows that you can live a good life with all your heart. A good life if devotion, philosophy, music, travel, social justice or a favorite sports team focus on religious causes none of this or a combination of these seems to be possible. It makes sense to assume that our personal desires are retained. Hadonists say that happiness is inherently valuable. They don’t care about being extraordinarily happy.  Desire theorists reject all objective theories of welfare. In doing so, they survive the big controversy surrounding protection. Many people think that something can only be good for us if we can.  Others think that having wealth or power is the best way of life.  This is not true. If you do not care about inner peace and it does not get you anything, it is difficult to see why. The reason you search for it. 

Even religious leaders are talking more about global poverty and climate change less about casual and pornography.  Ethics, however, are somewhat untouched by the complexities of formulating simple rules Difficult to apply. Not only the best. The theory of retribution is utilitarianism. The classical user considers an action to be correct only if it gives pleasure to all who are affected.  Ethics is not based on religion. Ethics is not something that can only be understood in context. Ethics is considered completely independent of religion. Some theologians say that ethics is impossible without religion. They say that 'good' means nothing but 'what God approves'. The more important connection between traditionally religion and ethics. Religion provides a reason to do what is right. There must be a self-interest to obey moral law. It requires obedience. It requires faith in heaven and hell. Hell is not always the cause of moral behavior. During this long period of evolution, we developed moral principles. There is a sense of moral correctness and justice among human beings. From these intelligent responses shared with other social mammals. Morality has grown under the influence of our acquisition. It has taken different forms in different human cultures. Ethics is not relative to the society in which we live. Ethics means the existence of objective moral standards. These elements of our thinking and speech seem to connect us in some way.  Ethics refers to the existence of objective moral standards. These aspects of our thinking and speech are related to us in some way. Rejection of objective moral facts does not mean rejection of morality.

4. CONCLUSION

Hedonism comes from the Greek word Hedone which means to seek pleasure. In English, the term is used to describe the desire to gain pleasure while avoiding pain. There are various theories that explain hedonism as phenomena in human life. Various types of hedonism exist depending on the perception of different groups of people. For instance, hedonistic utilitarianism is one of the rarely endorsed types of hedonism since it provides the proposal that hedonism is good as long as pleasure is not gained through making others feel pain, without giving concern to moral values associated with hedonism. Motivational hedonism claims that people are guided by their behavior to seek pleasure and not pain while hedonistic egoism drives people to achieve pleasure at whatever cost, even if it means smuch pleasure as possible.

REFERENCES

 

[1]    https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy

[2]    hedonism | Philosophy & Definition | Britannica.

[3]    Sample Essay Summary on Hedonism (slideshare.net)

 

 

Testimony, reason And rationality

ABSTRACT

Testimony is defined as a statement or declaration given under oath in a court of law or the sharing information about a religious experience. When evidence is reliably accepted by a person, beliefs are gained through it.  In modern society, many of a person's beliefs are directly derived from evidence or other beliefs derived in this way.  It is used as a philosophical fact about giving evidence. The primary focus of the philosophy of witnessing is scientifically. The broad interest in the topic reflects the centrality of reasoning in human affairs.  It also implies that in order to gain a broad understanding of logic, one must focus on the various projects and tasks related to it.

Keywords: Testimony, Evidence, empirical

1. Introduction

Testimony is believing someone when they make acclaim, and believing them because we think they know what they are talking about and are telling the truth. Testimony is important for most of what we actually know is accepted on the testimony of others. We don’t often get the chance to test the truth of what is told to us and yet we base outer life on these things. As well as even scientists accept what others say is so to build new knowledge. Acknowledging the complete reliance on past credible evidence in our credible system seems to place a pressure on a correlation based on the justification of our empirical beliefs.  A description of how beliefs derived from evidence can be justified and awareness cannot be temporarily described.  To be convincing, it must be a general concept of justified beliefs and the application of conditions to knowledge.   

Because some criteria that can be considered good logic are often silent, those who follow the evaluation project aim to determine to what extent human reasoning conforms to the hypothetical standard.  Ordinary people do not have the underlying logical ability to handle a wide range of logical tasks, so they have to exploit a simple heuristic collection that can be subject to serious anti-normative patterns that are either logical or biased.

2. CONTEXT

It is important to understand the process of understanding what is being said and to have faith in the speaker. This includes a concept of the nature of various speech verbs, including expressions.

This general concept of the link of evidence shows us that the narrator is sincere (believes what is said) and if your belief is true then what someone says (what someone says) is true.  Adult listeners find new opportunities to witness with all of this in their cognitive background; This, in turn, is a further empirical knowledge of human nature, which, in particular, is prone to lying and honest error.  There are two mechanisms by which blind faith can change a listener's response and focus broadly.  In fact, cognitive data will interact with background beliefs in this monitoring process.  If a trust is built without an assessment, the speaker assumes without evidence that it is trustworthy.

 Knowledge and justification can come in one direction: a reasonable belief in what someone is saying may fail to be knowledgeable, because even if the belief is false, or true, it is based on falsehood, but it is a just belief.  Possession of sufficient territory, logo, subject for her faith, we regard it as an essential condition to have knowledge-evidence beliefs and elsewhere.  This shows that there is a difference in the issues of knowledge and the reasons for sufficient confidence.

 To know what someone has been told, one must be able to gain an understanding of the generation of one's faith.  This means that one has the ability to defend one's statement by quoting what has been said.

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3. PRAGMATIC OBJECTIONS

According to Gigenser, we cannot draw conclusions from experiments on human reasoning. People seem to argue in a logical way. No standard principle is violated as the subjects understand the work. For the performance of logical tasks to improve, it must be certain that the activism of the people is problematic.  In which case, for the statement that continuous performance improves performance Warranted, it must also be an opportunity for us to be justified in maintaining it.

4. CONCLUSION

In philosophy, testimony is a proposition conveyed by one entity to another entity, whether through speech or writing or through facial expression, that is based on the entity's knowledge base. The proposition believed on the basis of a testimony is justified if conditions are met which assess, among other things, the speaker's reliability and the hearer's possession of positive reasons.

Reason has thus become a perilous faculty without firm ground, without a net, without ultimate security. For this, you could also say Reason declines every (all too comfortable) exposition of itself as being rationality. Its enduring claim is to bring about clarifications through the transitional activity of a reason apprehended as reason.

REFERENCES

 

[1]    https:www.slideserve.com/penney/belief-in-god-s-testimony

[2]    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimony.

[3]  https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/55/Welsch_Rationality_and_Reason_Today.htm?sequence=1&isAllowed=y